The Girl With Sthetoscope

CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is defined as a disease state characterized by airflow limitation that is not fully reversible (http://www.goldcopd.com/). It is the third leading cause of death worldwide, causing 3.23 million deaths in 2019. It is more prominent in low and middle-income countries.  It basically includes 2 diseases, Emphysema, and Chronic bronchitis. CAUSES AND RISK FACTORS: Cigarette smoking - Subsequent longitudinal studies have shown an accelerated decline in FEV1 in a dose-response relationship to the intensity of cigarette smoking, which is typically expressed as pack-years. Hyperresponsiveness of alveoli - A tendency for increased bronchoconstriction in response to a variety of exogenous stimuli, including methacholine and histamine, is one of the defining features of asthma. Dutch hypothesis suggests that asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema are variations of the same basic disease, which is modula

 ASTHMA Asthma is a syndrome characterized by airflow obstruction that varies markedly, both spontaneously and with treatment. It is a major non-communicable disease, affecting both children and adults. It affected an estimated 262 million people in 2019 and caused 461000 deaths. It is the most common chronic disease among children.  CAUSES AND RISK FACTORS: Asthma develops due to interaction between various host and environmental factors.  The host factors are: Atopy (Type-1 hypersensitivity): Atopy is the major risk factor for asthma, and nonatopic individuals have a very low risk of developing asthma. Atopy is due to the genetically determined production of specific IgE antibodies, with many patients showing a family history of allergic diseases. The environmental factors include: 1) Allergens (Airborne)  2) Chemical  3) Irritants 4) Viral Upper Respiratory Infections 5) Physical Stress 6) Emotional Stress 7) Air pollution 8) Occupational Asthma 9) Tobacco The risk factors include

  PNEUMONIA It can be defined as an acute inflammatory condition of the lungs, which primarily infects the alveoli. It accounts for 14% of all deaths of children under 5 years of age. The causes of pneumonia can be bacterial, viral, fungal. It has a high rate of incidence in the extreme years of life.  CAUSES: The causes of pneumonia are classified into, Hospital and Non-hospital causes. Hospital Causes include: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella, Escherichia coli, Proteus, Others Non-Hospital Causes include: Pneumococcus, Mycoplasma, Haemophilus Influenzae, Legionella, Others Pneumonia results from the proliferation of microbial pathogens at the alveolar level and the host’s response to those pathogens. The most common is aspiration from the oropharynx. Many pathogens are inhaled as contaminated droplets. Rarely, pneumonia occurs via hematogenous spread (e.g., from tricuspid endocarditis) or by contiguous extension from an infected pleural or mediastinal space. RISK FACTORS: Weak imm

 DIABETES MELLITUS (CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, TREATMENT, PREVENTION) Diabetes or diabetes mellitus affects as much as 10% of the world population, it is defined as a high level of blood glucose.  It can be basically divided into 2 types: 1) Type-1 Diabetes Mellitus 2) Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus Other forms of diabetes may also include - Drug-induced diabetes, and Gestational diabetes. Glucose levels in the body are maintained by 2 hormones, insulin, and glucagon, which are produced by the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. The beta-cells located centrally produce insulin which helps in decreasing the level of glucose in the blood. The peripherally located alpha-cells produce Glucagon which helps the liver to produce glucose and hence increases the level of glucose in the blood.  DIAGNOSIS:- TYPE-1 DIABETES MELLITUS: CAUSES:- Type-1 Diabetes Mellitus involves a Type-4 Hypersensitivity Reaction, which is a cell-mediated immune response. The T-cells of the body lose the property of self-toleranc